Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition: Best Practices Guide

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Date 12/13/2021
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Document Table of Contents
Document Table of Contents x
1. Introduction to Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide 2. Reviewing Your Kernel's report.html File 3. OpenCL Kernel Design Concepts 4. OpenCL Kernel Design Best Practices 5. Profiling Your Kernel to Identify Performance Bottlenecks 6. Strategies for Improving Single Work-Item Kernel Performance 7. Strategies for Improving NDRange Kernel Data Processing Efficiency 8. Strategies for Improving Memory Access Efficiency 9. Strategies for Optimizing FPGA Area Usage 10. Strategies for Optimizing Intel® Stratix® 10 OpenCL Designs 11. Strategies for Improving Performance in Your Host Application 12. Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide Archives A. Document Revision History for the Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide
1. Introduction to Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide x
1.1. FPGA Overview 1.2. Pipelines 1.3. Single Work-Item Kernel versus NDRange Kernel
2. Reviewing Your Kernel's report.html File x
2.1. High-Level Design Report Layout 2.2. Reviewing the Summary Report 2.3. Viewing Throughput Bottlenecks in the Design 2.4. Using Views 2.5. Analyzing Throughput 2.6. Reviewing Area Information 2.7. Optimizing an OpenCL Design Example Based on Information in the HTML Report 2.8. Accessing HLD FPGA Reports in JSON Format
2.4. Using Views x
2.4.1. Features of the System Viewer 2.4.2. Features of the Kernel Memory Viewer 2.4.3. Features of the Schedule Viewer
2.4.1. Features of the System Viewer x
2.4.1.1. Reviewing System Information 2.4.1.2. Reviewing Global Memory Information 2.4.1.3. Reviewing Block Information 2.4.1.4. Reviewing Cluster Information
2.5. Analyzing Throughput x
2.5.1. Reviewing Loop Information
2.6. Reviewing Area Information x
2.6.1. Area Report Message for Board Interface 2.6.2. Area Report Message for Function Overhead 2.6.3. Area Report Message for State 2.6.4. Area Report Message for Feedback 2.6.5. Area Report Messages for Private Variable Storage
2.6.5. Area Report Messages for Private Variable Storage x
2.6.5.1. Area Report Message for Constant Memory
3. OpenCL Kernel Design Concepts x
3.1. Kernels 3.2. Global Memory Interconnect 3.3. Local Memory 3.4. Loops in a Single Work-Item Kernel 3.5. Channels 3.6. Load-Store Units
3.3. Local Memory x
3.3.1. Changing the Memory Access Pattern Example
3.4. Loops in a Single Work-Item Kernel x
3.4.1. Trade-Off Between Initiation Interval and Maximum Frequency 3.4.2. Loop-Carried Dependencies that Affect the Initiation Interval of a Loop 3.4.3. Nested Loops 3.4.4. Loop Speculation 3.4.5. Loop Fusion 3.4.6. Loop Bottlenecks Simple Loop Example Nested Loop Example Addressing Bottlenecks
3.4.3. Nested Loops x
3.4.3.1. Reducing the Area Consumed by Nested Loops Using loop_coalesce
3.6. Load-Store Units x
3.6.1. Load-Store Unit Types 3.6.2. Load-Store Unit Modifiers 3.6.3. Controlling the Load-Store Units 3.6.4. When to Use Each LSU
4. OpenCL Kernel Design Best Practices x
4.1. Transferring Data Via Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Channels or OpenCL Pipes 4.2. Unrolling Loops 4.3. Optimizing Floating-Point Operations 4.4. Allocating Aligned Memory 4.5. Aligning a Struct with or without Padding 4.6. Maintaining Similar Structures for Vector Type Elements 4.7. Avoiding Pointer Aliasing 4.8. Avoid Expensive Functions 4.9. Avoiding Work-Item ID-Dependent Backward Branching
4.1. Transferring Data Via Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Channels or OpenCL Pipes x
4.1.1. Characteristics of Channels and Pipes 4.1.2. Execution Order for Channels and Pipes 4.1.3. Optimizing Buffer Inference for Channels or Pipes 4.1.4. Best Practices for Channels and Pipes
4.3. Optimizing Floating-Point Operations x
4.3.1. Floating-Point versus Fixed-Point Representations
5. Profiling Your Kernel to Identify Performance Bottlenecks x
5.1. Best Practices for Profiling Your Kernel 5.2. Instrumenting the Kernel Pipeline with Performance Counters (-profile) 5.3. Obtaining Profiling Data During Runtime 5.4. Reducing Area Resource Use While Profiling 5.5. Temporal Performance Collection 5.6. Performance Data Types 5.7. Interpreting the Profiling Information 5.8. Profiler Analyses of Example OpenCL Design Scenarios 5.9. Intel® FPGA Dynamic Profiler for OpenCL™ Limitations
5.3. Obtaining Profiling Data During Runtime x
5.3.1. Invoking the Profiler Runtime Wrapper 5.3.2. Viewing Profiling Data Using Intel® VTune™ Profiler
5.3.1. Invoking the Profiler Runtime Wrapper x
5.3.1.1. Splitting Execution and Data Post Processing
5.5. Temporal Performance Collection x
5.5.1. Profiling Autorun Kernels
5.7. Interpreting the Profiling Information x
5.7.1. Stall, Occupancy, Bandwidth 5.7.2. Stalling Channels 5.7.3. Channel Depths
5.8. Profiler Analyses of Example OpenCL Design Scenarios x
5.8.1. High Stall Percentage 5.8.2. Low Occupancy Percentage 5.8.3. High Stall and High Occupancy Percentages 5.8.4. No Stalls, Low Occupancy Percentage, and Low Bandwidth 5.8.5. No Stalls, High Occupancy Percentage, and Low Bandwidth 5.8.6. High Stall and Low Occupancy Percentages
6. Strategies for Improving Single Work-Item Kernel Performance x
6.1. Addressing Single Work-Item Kernel Dependencies Based on Optimization Report Feedback 6.2. Good Design Practices for Single Work-Item Kernel
6.1. Addressing Single Work-Item Kernel Dependencies Based on Optimization Report Feedback x
6.1.1. Removing Loop-Carried Dependency 6.1.2. Relaxing Loop-Carried Dependency 6.1.3. Transferring Loop-Carried Dependency to Local Memory 6.1.4. Relaxing Loop-Carried Dependency by Inferring Shift Registers 6.1.5. Removing Loop-Carried Dependencies Caused by Accesses to Memory Arrays
7. Strategies for Improving NDRange Kernel Data Processing Efficiency x
7.1. Specifying a Maximum Work-group Size or a Required Work-Group Size 7.2. Kernel Vectorization 7.3. Multiple Compute Units 7.4. Combination of Compute Unit Replication and Kernel SIMD Vectorization 7.5. Reviewing Kernel Properties and Loop Unroll Status in the HTML Report
7.3. Multiple Compute Units x
7.3.1. Compute Unit Replication versus Kernel SIMD Vectorization
8. Strategies for Improving Memory Access Efficiency x
8.1. General Guidelines on Optimizing Memory Accesses 8.2. Optimize Global Memory Accesses 8.3. Performing Kernel Computations Using Constant, Local or Private Memory 8.4. Improving Kernel Performance by Banking the Local Memory 8.5. Optimizing Accesses to Local Memory by Controlling the Memory Replication Factor 8.6. Minimizing the Memory Dependencies for Loop Pipelining 8.7. Static Memory Coalescing
8.2. Optimize Global Memory Accesses x
8.2.1. Contiguous Memory Accesses 8.2.2. Manual Partitioning of Global Memory 8.2.3. Optimizing for Two or More Banks of Global Memory
8.2.2. Manual Partitioning of Global Memory x
8.2.2.1. Heterogeneous Memory Buffers
8.3. Performing Kernel Computations Using Constant, Local or Private Memory x
8.3.1. Constant Cache Memory 8.3.2. Preloading Data to Local Memory 8.3.3. Storing Variables and Arrays in Private Memory
8.4. Improving Kernel Performance by Banking the Local Memory x
8.4.1. Optimizing the Geometric Configuration of Local Memory Banks Based on Array Index
9. Strategies for Optimizing FPGA Area Usage x
9.1. Compilation Considerations 9.2. Board Variant Selection Considerations 9.3. Memory Access Considerations 9.4. Arithmetic Operation Considerations 9.5. Data Type Selection Considerations
10. Strategies for Optimizing Intel® Stratix® 10 OpenCL Designs x
10.1. Reducing Channel Overhead 10.2. Optimizing Loop Control 10.3. Simplifying Memory Access to Local Memories 10.4. On-Chip Storage of Reused Data 10.5. Optimizing Data Path Control 10.6. Creating RTL Modules
10.1. Reducing Channel Overhead x
10.1.1. Reducing the Number of Kernels 10.1.2. Using a Single Kernel to Describe Systolic Arrays 10.1.3. Using Non-Blocking Channels
10.2. Optimizing Loop Control x
10.2.1. Simplifying Loop-Carried Dependencies in Intel® Stratix® 10 OpenCL Designs
10.6. Creating RTL Modules x
10.6.1. Reset Recommendations
11. Strategies for Improving Performance in Your Host Application x
11.1. Multi-Threaded Host Application 11.2. Utilizing Hardware Kernel Invocation Queue
11.2. Utilizing Hardware Kernel Invocation Queue x
11.2.1. Double Buffered Host Application Utilizing Kernel Invocation Queue
1. Introduction to Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide
2. Reviewing Your Kernel's report.html File
3. OpenCL Kernel Design Concepts
4. OpenCL Kernel Design Best Practices
5. Profiling Your Kernel to Identify Performance Bottlenecks
6. Strategies for Improving Single Work-Item Kernel Performance
7. Strategies for Improving NDRange Kernel Data Processing Efficiency
8. Strategies for Improving Memory Access Efficiency
9. Strategies for Optimizing FPGA Area Usage
10. Strategies for Optimizing Intel® Stratix® 10 OpenCL Designs
11. Strategies for Improving Performance in Your Host Application
12. Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide Archives
A. Document Revision History for the Intel® FPGA SDK for OpenCL™ Pro Edition Best Practices Guide

3.4.6. Loop Bottlenecks

Bottlenecks in a loop means one or more loop carried dependencies caused the compiler to reduce the number of data items to be processed concurrently (in the same clock cycle) or fMAX is reduced. Bottlenecks occur only on single work-item kernels and are always created for loops.

Before analyzing the throughput of a simple loop, it is important to understand the concept of dynamic initiation interval. The initiation interval (II) is the statically determined number of cycles between successive iteration launches of a given loop invocation. However, the statically scheduled II may differ from the actual realized dynamic II when considering interleaving.

Note: Interleaving allows the iterations of more than one invocation of a loop to execute in parallel, provided that the static II of that loop is greater than 1. By default, the maximum amount of interleaving for a loop is equal to the static II of that loop.

In the presence of interleaving, the dynamic II of a loop can be approximated by the static II of the loop divided by the degree of interleaving, that is, by the number of concurrent invocations of the loop that are in flight.

Simple Loop Example

In a simple loop, the maximum number of data items to be processed concurrently (also known as maximum concurrency) can be expressed as:

ConcurrencyMAX = (Block latency × Maximum interleaving iterations) / Initiation Interval

Consider the following simple loop:

1  kernel void lowered_fmax (global int *dst, int N) {
2    int res = N;
3    #pragma unroll  9
4    for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
5      res += 1;
6      res ^= i;
7    }
8    dst[0] = res;
9  }

The Loop Analysis report displays the following for the simple loop:

The for loop in line:4 has a latency of 6, maximum interleaving iterations of 1, and initiation interval of 2. So, the maximum concurrency is 3 (latency of 6 / II of 2). The bottleneck results from loop carried dependency caused by a data dependency on the variable res. This is reported in the Bottlenecks viewer as shown in the following image:

Another type of loop carried dependency is memory dependency, as shown in the following example: 

for (…)
  for (…)
     … = mem[x];
  mem[y] = …;

Nested Loop Example

In a nested loop, the maximum concurrency is more difficult to compute. For example, the loop carried dependency in a nested loop does not necessarily affect the initiation interval of the outer loop. Additionally, a nested loop often requires the knowledge of the inner loop's trip count. Consider the following example: 

1  __kernel void serial_exe_sample( __global unsigned* restrict input,
2                                   __global unsigned* restrict output,
3                                    int N ) {
4    unsigned offsets[1024];
5    unsigned size[1024];
6    unsigned results[4];
7    for (unsigned i = 0; i < N; i++) {
8      offsets[i] = input[i];
9    }
10  
11    for (unsigned i = 1; i < (N-1); i++) {
12      unsigned num =  offsets[i];
13      unsigned sum = 0;
14      // There's a memory dependency, so the inner loops are executed
15      // serially, i.e. the both loops finish before the next iteration
16      // of i in the outer loop can start.
17      for (unsigned j = 0; j < num; j++) {
18        size[j] = offsets[i+j] - offsets[i+j-1]; 
19      }
20      for (unsigned j = 0; j < 4; j++) {
21        results[j] = size[j];
22      }
23    }
24  
25    // store it back
26    #pragma unroll 1
27    for (unsigned i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
28      output[i] = results[i];
29    }
30  }

In this example, the bottleneck is resulted from loop carried dependency caused by a memory dependency on the variable size. The size variable must finish loading in the loop in line:20 before the next outer loop (line:11) iteration can be launched. Therefore, the maximum concurrency of the outer loop is 1. This information is reported in the details sections of the Loop Analysis and Schedule Viewer reports.

Addressing Bottlenecks

To address the bottlenecks, primarily consider restructuring your design code .

After restructuring, consider applying the following loop pragmas or attributes on arrays:

Consider the previous Simple Loop Example where the concurrency is 3 as the initiation interval is 2. Applying #pragma II 1, as shown in the following code snippet, comes at the expense of lowered predicted fMAX from 90MHz to 50MHz: 

1  kernel void lowered_fmax (global int *dst, int N) {
2      int res = N;
3      #pragma unroll  9
4      #pragma ii 1
5      for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
6  	    res += 1;
7  	    res ^= i;
8      }
9      dst[0] = res;
10  }
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